Adapted fromSozein ta Phainomena: An Essay Concerning Physical Theory from Plato to Galileoby Pierre Duhem (translated by Matthew Minerd)

What are physical theories’ value? What relation does it have with metaphysical explication? These are questions that are greatly stirred and raised in our days. However, as with other questions, they are in no manner completely new. It is a question that has been posed in all ages. As long as there has been a science of nature, they have been posed. Granted, the form that they assume changes somewhat from one age to another, for they borrow their various appearance from the scientific vocabularies of their times. Nevertheless,one need only dismissthis outer vestment in order to recognize that they remain essentially identical to each other.

The science of nature offers us up until the 17^th世纪,至少很少成功的政党create theories expressed in a mathematical language. . . . If we leave aside several exceptions, an historical investigation places before our eyes strong evidence of a type science that would indeed be a prediction of modern mathematical physics. This science is astronomy. That is, where we would say, “Physical theory,” the Greek, Muslim, Medieval, and early Renaissance sages would say, “Astronomy.” However, for these earlier thinkers, the other parts of the study of nature did not attain a similar degree of perfection. That is, they did not express the laws of experience in a mathematical manner similar to that found in astronomy. In addition, during this time, the study of the material realities generally were not separated from what we would call today, “metaphysics.”

Thus, you can see why the question that concerns us takes two related, though different forms. Today, we ask, “What are the relations between metaphysics and physical theory?” However, in past days; indeed, for nearly two thousand years; it was formulated instead as, “What are the relations between physics and astronomy?”

What is an equivalent meaning for the underlined selection, “one need only dismiss”?

An adapted selection fromThe Princeby Niccolò Machiavelli (1532)

Now, if you will consider what was the nature of the government of Darius, you will find it similar to the kingdom of the Turk. Therefore it was only necessarily for Alexander, first to overthrow him in the field, and then to take the country from him. After this victory, Darius being killed, the state remained secure in Alexander’s power, for the reasons noted earlier. If his successors had been united they would have enjoyed it securely and at their ease, for there was no tumults raised in the kingdom except those they provoked themselves. However, it is impossible to hold with such tranquility states constituted like that of France. Hence arose those frequent rebellions against the Roman’s in Spain, France, and Greece,owing tothe many principalities there were in these latter states, of which the Romans always held an insecure possession; however, with the power and long continuance of the empire, the memory of them passed away, and the Romans then became secure possessors. When fighting afterwards amongst themselves, each one was able to attach to himself his own parts of the country, according to the authority he had assumed there; and the family of the former lord being exterminated, none other than the Romans were acknowledged.

When these things are remembered, no one will marvel at the ease with which Alexander held the Empire of Asia or at the difficulties that others have had to keep an acquisition. This is not occasioned by the little or abundance of ability in the conqueror but, instead, by the want of uniformity in the subject state.

Which of the following is an adequate replacement for the underlined "owing to"?

In the last day of classes(1), everyone was distracted and unable to do their (2) work. Even the teacher, which normally (3) was attentive and cheery, seems (4) unable to focus. The final test took (5) way too long for everyone to complete, and many of students (6) had put down his head (7) on the desk. The sound of the heat blowing through the room was enough to put everyone (8) to sleep, and the teachers' (9) eyes began drooping despite hisself (10). After what seemed an eternity; (11) the bell had rung (12) and everyone, including the teacher, ran out of the room.

Choose from the following four options the answer that best corrects the underlined mistake preceding the question number. If there is no mistake or the original text is the best option, choose "NO CHANGE."

From an adaptation of a Letter from Thomas Jefferson to John Adams, On the Occasion of the Death of the Latter's Wife Abigail (1818)

The public papers my dear friend, have announced the fatal event of which your letterofOctober the 20th had given me ominous foreboding.Tried myself in the school of affliction,by the loss of every form of connection which can rive the human heart, I know well and feelwhat you have lost, what you have suffered, are suffering, and have yet to endure．相同的试验告诉我,弊病immeasurable, time and silence are the only medicine. I will not, therefore, by useless condolences,open afresh the sluices of your grief, nor, although mingling sincerely my tears with yours, will I say a word more where words are vain,butthat it is of some comfort to us both, that the term is not very distant at which weare to deposit our sorrows and suffering bodies inthe same soil and to ascend in essence to an ecstatic meeting with the friends we have loved and lost, and whom we shall still love and never lose again. God bless you and support you underyourheavy affliction.

Which of the following is the best replacement for the boldfaced preposition “of” in the first sentence?

Adapted fromThe Origin of Speciesby Charles Darwin (ed. 1896)

Look at a plant in the midst of it’s range. Why does it not double or quadruple its numbers? We know that it can perfectly well withstand a little more heat or cold, dampness or dryness, for elsewhere it ranges into slightly hotter or colder, damper or drier districts. In this case, we can clearly see that if we wish in imagination to give the plant the power of increasing in number, we should have to give it some advantage over its competitors, or over the animals of the wild thatprey在上面。在其地理范围的限制,a change of constitution with respect to climate would clearly be an advantage to our plant;butwe have reason to believe that only a few plants or animalsrange so far, that they are destroyedexclusively by the rigor of the climate. Not until we reach the extreme confines of life, in the Arctic regions or on the borders of an utter desert, will competition cease. The land may be extremely cold or dry, yettheirwill be competition between some fewspecies, or between the individuals of the same species, forthe warmest or dampest spots.

Hence we can see that when a plant or animalis placedin a new country amongst new competitors, the conditions of its life will generally be changed in an essential manner, although the climate may be exactly the same as in its former home. Ifit’s average numbers are to increasein its new home, we should have to modify it in a different way to what we should have had to do in its nativecountry; forwe should have to give it some advantage over a different set of competitors or enemies.

It is good thus to try in imaginationto give to any one species an advantage over another. Probably in no single instance should we know what to do. This ought to convince us of our ignoranceonthe mutual relations of all organic beings; a conviction as necessary, as it is difficult to acquire. All that we can do isto keep steadily in mindthat each organic being is striving to increase in a geometricalratio; thateach at some period of itslife, during some season of the year, during each generation or at intervals, has to struggle对生活和遭受巨大的破坏。当我们reflect on this struggle, we may console ourselves withthe full beliefthat the war of nature is not incessant, that no fear is felt, that death is generally prompt, and that the vigorous, the healthy, and the happy survive and multiply.

What would be the best replacement for the boldfaced and underlined word “on” in the third sentence of the third paragraph.

Adapted fromThe Origin of Speciesby Charles Darwin (ed. 1896)

Look at a plant in the midst of it’s range. Why does it not double or quadruple its numbers? We know that it can perfectly well withstand a little more heat or cold, dampness or dryness, for elsewhere it ranges into slightly hotter or colder, damper or drier districts. In this case, we can clearly see that if we wish in imagination to give the plant the power of increasing in number, we should have to give it some advantage over its competitors, or over the animals of the wild thatprey在上面。在其地理范围的限制,a change of constitution with respect to climate would clearly be an advantage to our plant;butwe have reason to believe that only a few plants or animalsrange so far, that they are destroyedexclusively by the rigor of the climate. Not until we reach the extreme confines of life, in the Arctic regions or on the borders of an utter desert, will competition cease. The land may be extremely cold or dry, yettheirwill be competition between some fewspecies, or between the individuals of the same species, forthe warmest or dampest spots.

Hence we can see that when a plant or animalis placedin a new country amongst new competitors, the conditions of its life will generally be changed in an essential manner, although the climate may be exactly the same as in its former home. Ifit’s average numbers are to increasein its new home, we should have to modify it in a different way to what we should have had to do in its nativecountry; forwe should have to give it some advantage over a different set of competitors or enemies.

It is good thus to try in imaginationto give to any one species an advantage over another. Probably in no single instance should we know what to do. This ought to convince us of our ignoranceonthe mutual relations of all organic beings; a conviction as necessary, as it is difficult to acquire. All that we can do isto keep steadily in mindthat each organic being is striving to increase in a geometricalratio; thateach at some period of itslife, during some season of the year, during each generation or at intervals, has to struggle对生活和遭受巨大的破坏。当我们reflect on this struggle, we may console ourselves withthe full beliefthat the war of nature is not incessant, that no fear is felt, that death is generally prompt, and that the vigorous, the healthy, and the happy survive and multiply.

What is the best form of the boldfaced and underlined section?

While the course appeared hard from the outset, when his report card arrived in the mail, Charliehad discoveredthat all of his studying had paid off. He had successfully passedChemistry: his fatherwould be proud. His father, aworld-renownedchemist wasdoubtful that Charlie would pass the class but Charlie wassurethat he could do it. He had spent all of the fall semester studying the periodic table, memorizing different measurements and learning the parts of an atom.

That terrible semesterculminated in thefinalexam. Theday of the big test,his stomach is a tight knot of nerves．He tried to tell his mother that he was feeling ill but she knew that he was lying.¹He shook as he tried to put on his shoes and socks.²He woke up with his fingers tightly gripping the bedspread.³Sitting on the bus, he could feel himself sweating through his light sweater.⁴When Charlie finally arrived at school, he walked into his Chemistry class just as his teacher was passing out the test. “You may now begin,” she said.

Withthe report card now clenched in his hands in victory, Charlie knew that he could tackle anything to which he put his mind.

Choose the answer that best corrects the bolded portion of the passage. If the bolded portion is correct as written, choose "NO CHANGE."

"A Unique Journey" by Jasmine Tilley (2013)

While I was studying abroad in Europe, I had the great opportunity to travel to different countries. For one of my adventures, I chose to travel toSwitzerland; however,the classmates I usually traveled with were unable to come with me. I was facedindeciding whether to go alone or not at all. This decision was easy forme, Iwas not going to pass up the opportunity to see Switzerland!

I first had to board a train from where I was staying in Italy to reach the southern part of Switzerland.Unfortunately, the train workers were on strike that day,so I ended up delayed in Milan for several hours. Soon enough I was on my way again. However, shortly after I reached the Switzerland border, the train stopped because one of the cars was filled with smoke! I still have no idea what happened, but after a few minutes we were moving again.

Once I finally reached Geneva, I had to walk to findthe hostel where I was staying that I had booked．It was night, and I realized that I was truly alone. I did not know another soul in this entire country! This thought was both scary and exciting.

The next day, I walked all around Geneva. Being my own tour guide was a fantastic adventure. I saw all the major sites while also experiencing the culture. There was some sort of marathon going on that day, and there was so much excitement all throughout the city. There were live bands.It even rained off and on.Everything was new and interesting, and I loved it.

That evening, I boarded a train to Zermatt. Prior to this journey, Ihadno idea that the Matterhorn was an actual mountain! The city of Zermatt was very tiny and had no cars, only small electric vehicles that resembled wind-up toys. The whole city was lit up, and though I was walking to my hostel at night again, I felt very safe.Walking through Geneva at night, though, starkly contrasted it．

The next day, I decided to go skiing on the beautiful, snowy mountains in Zermatt. I rented a pair of skis and spent a few hours skiing in my jeans and coat! It was an amazing experience.

My journey to Switzerland is dear to me not just because of the many beautiful and exciting things I experienced, but also because I was alone. I had the time as well as the quiet atmosphere to absorb and contemplate not just what was going on around me but also what was going on insidemyself．I felt changed somehow. I felt stronger and more independent.

Choose the answer that best corrects the bolded portion of the passage. If the bolded portion is correct as written, choose "NO CHANGE."

"A Unique Journey" by Jasmine Tilley (2013)

While I was studying abroad in Europe, I had the great opportunity to travel to different countries. For one of my adventures, I chose to travel toSwitzerland; however,the classmates I usually traveled with were unable to come with me. I was faced in deciding whether to go alone or not at all. This decision was easy forme, Iwas not going to pass up the opportunity to see Switzerland!

I first had to board a train from where I was staying in Italy to reach the southern part of Switzerland.Unfortunately, the train workers were on strike that day,so I ended up delayed in Milan for several hours. Soon enough I was on my way again. However, shortly after I reached the Switzerland border, the train stopped because one of the cars was filled with smoke! I still have no idea what happened, but after a few minutes we were moving again.

Once I finally reached Geneva, I had to walk to findthe hostel where I was staying that I had booked．It was night, and I realized that I was truly alone. I did not know another soul in this entire country! This thought was both scary and exciting.

The next day, I walked all around Geneva. Being my own tour guide was a fantastic adventure. I saw all the major sites while also experiencing the culture. There was some sort of marathon going on that day, and there was so much excitement all throughout the city. There were live bands.It even rained off and on.Everything was new and interesting, and I loved it.

That evening, I boarded a train to Zermatt. Prior to this journey, Ihadno idea that the Matterhorn was an actual mountain! The city of Zermatt was very tiny and had no cars, only small electric vehicles that resembled wind-up toys. The whole city was lit up, and though I was walking to my hostel at night again, I felt very safe.Walking through Geneva at night, though, starkly contrasted it．

The next day, I decided to go skiing on the beautiful, snowy mountains in Zermatt. I rented a pair of skis and spent a few hours skiing in my jeans and coat! It was an amazing experience.

My journey to Switzerland is dear to me not just because of the many beautiful and exciting things I experienced, but also because I was alone. I had the time as well as the quiet atmosphere to absorb and contemplate not just what was going on around me but also what was going on insidemyself．I felt changed somehow. I felt stronger and more independent.

Choose the answer that best corrects the bolded portion of the passage. If the bolded portion is correct as written, choose "NO CHANGE."

When the patent on Alexander Graham Bell’s revolutionary invention, the telephone, expiredin 1894 thousandsof new firms entered the telecommunication industry. Among themwerea collection of profitable companies that merged to form what would later become known as The Bell System. The Bell System had amassed such weight in the industry that in 1933, when Congress passed a law declaring phone service a public utility, the Bell System quickly transformed into a monopoly. Lawmakersenthusiasticsupported a series of provisions intended to stimulate competition. Appointed as the nation’s sole provider of telecommunication services,widespread criticism about the Bell System began to surface．

The Federal Communications Act has so far been highlyeffective andthe industry has grown tremendously as a result. In fact, for the past three years, the profitability of the largest three telecommunication companies has beengreater thanthe largest three automotive companies. The number of calls provided by the top three companiesrangefrom five billion to six billion per day. Today, virtually everyone has made a phone call over the course oftheir lives．Most people do not know, however, that payment for swaths of electromagnetic wavelengthshave becomecommonplace.

One explanation for such high call volume and large profits is that calls are becoming much less expensive for companies to provide,regardless formany large fixed expenses such as communication towers, base stations, andpaying for utility poles．Over the last century, telephoneshad becomean important part of modern society. In fact, the cost of delivering one telephone call today is about a thousandth of the cost in the 1950s. The increasing affordability and abundance of phone calls mark the progress made since the time of Alexander Graham Bell and the Bell System.

Choose the answer that best corrects the bolded portion of the passage. If the bolded portion is correct as written, choose "NO CHANGE."